REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE

1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?

it would be my work on Compendium Review, my blood pressure lab and my exercise physiology lab.

2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?

My essay on "what is food" and my food nutrition lab.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?

I worked pretty hard on this unit, more than the first so I would say I deserve a A :)

4. How could I perform better in the next unit?

I need to work on my essay more and do better on my labs.

5. At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?

the reading!!! These chapters we far way more interesting to read than unit one!!! I recently lost my grandma due to complication of surgery so reading chapter chapter eight was hard but one I needed. I now want to take care of myself more and my family health as well.

6. At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?

I would say chapter seven I did. It took me awhile to get into the chapter, even having to re-read it couple times but I did.

7.What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?

I found that the labs were very helpful in understand what unit two was all about. so points to the teacher!

8. What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?

Nothing confusing or puzzling, it was the same as unit one, just a different subjects and different labs :)

9.What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)

reading about digestion was a great chapter. I thought I knew where my food was going but in that kind of detail? I was surprised that I got into that chapter and now want to know what i'm eating and to stay healthy.

What is food?

Food is what we eat, what we feed ourselves. It keeps us alive. Wasn’t that an easy question? What is food really? What are we eating to keep ourselves alive? Are we eating healthy food to keep ourselves alive? Or are we ourselves to death or to complication in our later years?
Fast food chains are a growing numbers! In most towns and cities there is a McDonald’s, taco bell, KFC, sonic, burger king, etc, etc. Are these places healthy to eat? Maybe if we ate out once in awhile but everyday? Some people say they don’t like to cook then that would mean they eat out. When fast food places first came around they’re serving sizes were at a healthy amount but now there is super size, king size or sonic size!! Many children first works are “Donald’s” (McDonald’s) !!!! What are we eating!!!
Obesity is growing. American is the one number one country with obesity!!! Obesity is affecting our children because as parents/role models we are feed our children the wrong food, we are feeding them chips instead of fruits, candy and soda instead of juice and vegetables, fast food for dinner instead of a home cooked meal. As a mother myself, my four year old son knows McDonald’s because we use to eat out a lot but that has all changed. Being on a budget I found that cooking for my family is a lot cheaper and there is leftovers!! I work as a cashier and I see children, younger than mine getting fountain drinks and I’m always glad that my son doesn’t know what soda is YET. My brother never gave his son soda and today he’s eight years old and doesn’t like the taste because he never had it!! I’m hoping the same for my son.
I think the food pyramid is what everyone needs to go by still. We all need to know what we need to eat and when to stop eating. That is the problem with obesity knowing when to stop eating!! As a family we should all sit at the table and talk instead of eating in front of the television because we don’t really watch what were eating when we are watching our shows!
I have diabetes that run in my family. On my mother side, all her aunts are diabetic, most of her cousins and sister/brothers have high blood pressure. I know that I need to take care of myself, not only for myself but for my son’s health as well.
My boyfriend and I have been watching The biggest Loser: Couples. It’s a addicting show and we want to be healthy and workout. Since I know that I’m saving a lot of money from not eating out, I cook, A LOT! I know the fast food places are trying to help some with society, with adding salads meals and bottle water. So fast food can’t take all the blame, it’s us. We need to education ourselves about food and a health lifestyle so we can live a long healthy life.

Unit Two Lab Project

Unit Two Lab Project: Exercise Physiology

My lab is about measuring basic body metabolic parameters with pulse, respiration rate and blood pressure. Doing three different activities to test each measurements we will see the differences in each results, will it go higher or lower? Each activity will be compared to my “baseline” results and see if it’s the same or a lot higher.
To see test my pulse I will be using the carotid arteries (located on your neck) to get my results. To test my respiration rate I will be counting my breathing for 30 seconds and multiplying it by 2. To test my blood pressure I will be using a blood pressure device.
My first measurements is my baseline or “at rest”. I will be relaxed for 10-15 minutes and then take my results. First activity will be some exercise, second activity will be drinking Redbull, and my third activity will be eating subway.
After doing each activity and writing each body measurement I propose each activity will make my blood pressure, pulse, and respiration rate a lot higher than my “baseline”.
My first activity, exercising, I will do jump jacks for a minute. I propose that my pulse, blood pressure and respiration rate to increase A LOT because I’m not fit. My second activity, drinking a Red bull (energy drink) will raise my blood pressure not my pulse or respiration rate. My third activity, eating, I propose my blood pressure, pulse and respiration rate to be the same as my “baseline”.

The first picture is me taking my pulse. Second picture is me taking my blood pressure.

Me doing Jumping Jacks.

Doing jumping jacks for a minute raised my pulse by 34.6 per beat/minute. My respiration rate raised by 14. My blood pressure did go up by 19/6. By doing jump jacks my pulse, resp. rate and blood pressure increased. It was good exercise for me since usually don’t do jump jacks and I even forgot how to do jumping jacks!

My favorite drink, Redbull

My next activity was drinking my favorite drink, Redbull. Since Redbull is an energy drink, I would think it was raise something in me. My pulse rate went up by 10.6, my resp. rate went up by .8, and my blood pressure went up by 10.2/2.8.
Doing some research I found that energy does raise your blood pressure.

http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21654188/








My last activity was eating subway. My pulse rate went up by 10.2, resp. rate went up by 1.2, and my blood pressure went up by 18.6/5.4.

Me eating Subway

My hypothesis with my first activity was correct. By doing jumping jacks for a minute did increase my pulse, resp. rate and blood pressure increased. Each measurement did increase by a lot! After doing jump jacks and being unfit I knew my pulse rate was going to be high since I was out of breath!
My second activity showed that my hypothesis was wrong. It raised not only my blood pressure but my pulse rate also. Redbull being an energy drink it gave me energy!! It got me moving around the house and doing stuff.
My last activity was eating subway. My hypothesis was wrong and right. It showed that my pulse went up (maybe from eating and moving around?) and my blood pressure went up also. BUT my resp. rate stayed the same, only going up by 1.2.
Conclusion:
I found this lab to extremely helpful to my own health and I learned a lot about my body and how it works. My systolic and diastolic pressure stayed normal. I was scared to do this lab because I have a family history of high blood pressure and I wasn’t. I know as I get older I need to take better care of myself since blood pressure goes higher with age.

daily Food Lab

-How healthy a daily diet do you think this is? Why?
I think it was healthy enough. I have diabetes that run in my family as well as high blood pressure. So I try and not to drink a lot of soda or anything in high sugar. So lately I’ve been drinking a lot of water. My grandma was diabetic when she passed away recently and I’ve been thinking about my own health lately and my son’s. So I chose for a while not to drink soda. To be totally honest it has been HARD!! It has been hard not drinking my daily redbulls. I know what I ate wasn’t that all healthy or enough but it will be awhile till I get myself to eat a healthy meal.

-What would you change about this day's eating, if anything?
I probably would have not eaten pizza. I work at a place that has pizza and the smell was hard to resist and probably the ice cream. I think I need to eat more and not just the main meal. Like add some fruit or nuts for snacks.
-Do you find this kind of nutritional tracking helpful? Why or why not?
Yes I did. After noticing what I ate and what I probably eat everyday that I need to eat more fruit and vegetable. It would be helpful to anyone who is trying to lose weight or wanting to be more healthy.

Total Calorie-1210, total fat cal-410, fat%-45g, sat. fat-69%, trans. fat-0, Chol. %-37%, sodium-62%, carbs-169g (56%), sugar-73g, protein-73g, Vit. A-20%, Vit. C-40%, Calcium-45%, Iron-35%

Click on the image to have it enlarged.

Chapter Eight

Chapter Eight
Digestive System and Nutrition
Overview of Digestion
The organs of the digestive system are located within a tube called the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract).
• Ingestion- when food goes into the mouth.
• Digestion- can be mechanical or chemical. Divides food into pieces and hydrolyzes food to molecular nutrient. It occurs in the mouth and stomach.
• Movement- food is passed along from one organ to the next and indigestible remains are expelled.
• Absorption- unit molecules produced by digestion cross the wall of the GI tract and enter the blood for delivery to cells.
• Elimination- removal of indigestible wastes through the anus


Wall of the Digestive Tract
• The walls of the digestive tract has four layers
• Lumen- is the central space that contains water
• Mucosa- Inner mucous membrane layer that is modified according to the digestive organ

• Diverticulitis-when the pouches become infected or inflamed

• Submocosa- broadband of loose connective tissue that contains nerves, blood, and lymphatic vessels.

• Inflammatory bowel disease

• Muscularis- two layers of smooth muscle

• Irritable bowel syndrome

• Serosa- thin, outermost tissue that is the visceral peritoneum.

• Appendicitis

Layers of the GI Tract










First Part of the Digestive Tract
The Mouth
The mouth receives food and begins the process of digestion.
• The roof of the mouth has two parts:

• The anterior (up front) hard palate

• Posterior (in the back) soft palate

• Three pairs of salivary glands sends juices by way of ducts to the mouth.
• Saliva is a solution of mucus and water, which contains bicarbonate and an enzyme called salivary amylase.
• The mechanical digestion-teeth chews food into pieces convenient for swallowing and the tongue moves food around the mouth.
• Chemical digestion- salivary amylase begins the process of digesting starch
The Pharynx and Esophagus
The mouth and nasal passages lead to a cavity called the pharynx. The food passage and air passage cross in the pharynx because the trachea is anterior to the esophagus, a long, narrow tube that takes food to the stomach.
-Swallowing
• Has a voluntary phase
• Swallowing becomes a reflex action preformed automatically.
• We do not breathe when we swallow.
• The soft palate moves back to close off the nasal passages, and the trachea moves up under the epiglottis to cover the glottis which prevents food from entering the nose or entering the trachea when we swallow.









Process of Swallowing









The Stomach and Small Intestine
The Stomach
• Is a thick-walled, j-shaped organ that lies on the left side of the body beneath the diaphragm.
• Stores food
• Initiates the digestion of protein and controls movement of chyme into the small intestine.
• The stomach expands
• The mucosa of the stomach has deep folds, the rugae, which disappear as the stomach fills.
• The mucosa of the stomach had millions of gastric pits, which lead into gastric glands, which produces gastric juice.
• Gastric juice contains an enzyme called pepsin.







The stomach and Layers





The Small Intestine
• Digestion is completed in the small intestine
• Complete digestion using enzymes, which digest all types of food and absorb the products of the digestive process
• The walls of the small intestine contain villi that have an outer layer of columnar epithelial cells, each containing thousands of microvilli.
• Nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine
Lactose Intolerance
• Lactose is the primary sugar in the milk.
• People who can not digest lactose are lactose intolerance.
Obesity: Diabetes Type 2 and Cardiovascular Disease
• The intake of too much sugar and fat can result to obesity.
• Being obese can result to have diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions
Three Accessory Organs
• Pancreas
• Liver
• Gallbladder

• Pancreas-produces pancreatic juice, which contains digestive enzymes for carbs, protein and fat.

• Liver- Produces bile, destroys old blood cells, detoxifies blood, stores iron, makes plasma proteins, stores glucose as glycogen, breaks down glycogen to glucose, produces urea, and helps regulate blood cholesterol levels.

• Gallbladder- stores bile, which is produced by the liver.

Regulation of Digestive Secretions
• The secretions of digestive juices are controlled by the nervous system and by digestive hormones.
The Large Intestine and Defecation
• Includes the cecum, the colon, the rectum and the anal canal.
Functions of the Large Intestine
• The large intestine absorbs water, which is an important function that prevents dehydration of the body.
• Absorbs vitamins produced by bacteria called the intestinal flora.
• Forms feces.



The large intestine and an image of the large of intestine

Disorders of the Colon and Rectum
• Diarrhea- caused by infection of the lower intestinal tract and nervous stimulation.
• Constipation- when the feces are dry and hard.

• Chronic constipation is associated with hemorrhoids.

• Diverticulosis- is the occurrence of little pouches of mucosa that have pushed out through weak spots in the muscularis.
• Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)- is the condition in which the muscularis contracts powerfully but without its normal coordination.
• Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)- is a collective term for a number of inflammatory disorders.
• Polyps and Cancer- polyps (small growths arising from the epithelial lining.) whether benign or cancerous.
Nutrition and Weight Control
Obesity had doubled in the US in 20 years!! Nearly one-third of adults are now obese.
How Obesity is defined
• Is defined as a body mass index (BMI).



Classes of Nutrients
• Nutrient can be defined as a component of food that performs a physiological function in the body.

• Carbohydrates

• Proteins

• Lipids

Minerals
• Are divided into major mineral and trace minerals

• Calcium

• Sodium

Vitamins
• Are organic compounds that the body uses for metabolic purposes but is unable to produce in adequate quantity.

• Antioxidants

• Vitamin D

How to Plan Nutritious Meals
• Eat a variety of food.
• Eat more fruit, vegetables, whole grains and low fat products.
• Eat less of food in high fat (fast food places, alcohol)
• Be physically active everyday.




Eating Disorders
• Anorexia nervosa- is a severe psychological disorder characterized by an irrational fear of getting fat that results in the refusal to eat enough food to maintain a healthy body weight. About 90% young women suffer from this disorder.
• Bulimia nervosa- binge eating and then purges to avoid gaining weight. A average of 4% young women suffer from this disorder.
• Binge-eating disorder- some obese people suffer from this disorder, it is overeating.
• Muscle dysmorphia- thinking his or her body is underdeveloped. A person can hours exercising and obsession with a diet.



http://www2.potsdam.edu/french85/digestion.html
http://mednote.co.kr/11CYTOHISTO.htm
http://www.answers.com/topic/swallowing?cat=health
http://www.acm.uiuc.edu/sigbio/project/digestive/late/lg_intestine.html
http://www.pta.org/documents/foodpyramid.jpg

State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.
At a young age people tend to not have high blood pressure but as they get older it rises. I could be genetic but from the study it seem more of a life style. Today many young folks are not pushed enough to the healthy society because there are many fast food joints, a lot of junk food inventions and television. Many tend not to exercise that could lower their blood pressure as they get older.

Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.
I hypothesis the a group of men and women get high blood pressure as they get older because of their lifestyle.

How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record?
I will test the blood pressure of both men and women starting at a young age to adults. Step by step I will record their blood pressure and make a note of the people who do have high blood pressure. I will record if they have a family history of hypertension and whether or not they exercise.

Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.
The study with female showed that as they get older the blood pressure does rise. Two girls age 18-24 had a history of hypertension and both had high blood pressure. Some of the other women who also had blood pressure or were at risk did not exercise and were overweight for their height.
The male also had higher blood pressure, as they got older. Some of them that did have high blood pressure had a high salt diet, were overweight or drank alcohol.

Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?
Yes some of the men and women proved that its lifestyle that can raise their blood pressure. Most men and women were overweight and had high blood pressure. Also the men in the study had a high salt diet that is high in sodium that can increase your blood pressure.

During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?
I noticed that some of the men/women had high blood pressure but had a family history of hypertension. Some of the drank alcohol and had high blood pressure and some did not. So it might have to do with their family history of hypertension or lifestyle, how well they take care of themselves.


List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?
Weight is associated with hypertension and lifestyle, what we eat, how well we take care of ourselves. Having a high salt diet can increase the chances of having high blood pressure. Another thing that can increase blood pressure is emotions.

What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?
Obesity has a huge effect on having high blood pressure. Obesity also has a risk of diabetes. No I don’t believe that being obesity alone can put a person at risk. If a person had a history of hypertension and is obesity then I would say yes, they are at risk.
There are other factors that can raise the chances like, age, race, lifestyle, weight and family health history.

the results of men and women age 11-54 years old, blood pressure


The graph shows the results of both gender's blood pressure, it shows it rising as each gender age.

Ch.5,6,7

about AIDs/HIV

• AIDS is one of the fastest growing virus in the world!!
  
• no cure for AIDS
• In Africa, it is one of the highest places with AIDS, women, men, children and unborn children.
  
• exchanged through body fluids.
  

• The HIV virus causes AIDS by attacking the helper T cells.
  
• The helper T cells signal other cells to the presence of pathogens. When there are not enough helper T cells for this part of the immune response, the immune response becomes deficient
• To help prevent AIDS is to get tested!!!
  

Chapter Five
Cardiovascular System: Heart and Blood Vessels

Overview of the Cardiovascular System
The two parts of the cardiovascular system-

• Heart- pumps blood

• Blood vessels- keeps the blood flowing

The function of the cardiovascular system is to generate blood pressure, transport blood, create exchange at the capillaries, and regulate blood. The lymphatic system helps the cardiovascular system by collecting excess tissue fluid and returning it to the cardiovascular system.


The Type of Blood Vessels
The type of blood vessels-

• The arteries: From the Heart- the arteries carry blood away from the heart and to have strong walls.

• The Capillaries: Exchange- Have thin walls, is where exchanging can occur

• The Veins: To the Heart- the veins carry blood to the heart and it has thinner walls than the arteries and contains valves. About 70% of blood is in the veins so the blood acts as a blood tank.

The Heart is a Double Pump

• The heart is a cone-shaped, muscular organ located between the lungs.

• The heart is a double pump because the right ventricle of the heart sends blood through the lungs, and the left ventricle sends blood throughout the body. The valves keep the blood flowing in the right direction so no flows are going backwards.

Passage of blood through the heart

• The atrium receives oxygen-poor blood from the body and the ventricle pumps it into the pulmonary circuit (lungs).

• The atrium receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs, and the ventricle pumps it into the systemic circuit.

The heartbeat is controlled

• Each heartbeat is called a cardio cycle.

• Systole, the working phase refers to contraction of the chambers and the diastole, the resting phase refers to relaxation of the chambers.

• “Lub” occurs when increasing pressure of blood inside a ventricle forces the cusps of the AV valve to slam shut.

• “Dub” occurs when the ventricles relax, and blood in the arteries pushes back, causing the semilunar valves to close.

The Electrocardiogram Is a Record of the Heartbeat

• Electrocardiogram (ECG) is a recording of the electrical changes that occurs in myocardium during a cardiac cycle.

Features of the Cardiovascular System

• The pulse rate indicates the heartbeat rate. The pulse arte is usually 70 beats per minute but can vary.

• Blood pressure moves blood in arteries

• Blood flow is slow in the capillaries

• Blood flow in veins returns blood to the heart

Two Cardiovascular Pathways
• The cardiovascular system is divided into the pulmonary circuit and the systemic circuit.

• The pulmonary circuit: exchange of gases

• The systemic circuit: exchanges with tissue fluid

• The largest artery is the aorta, which receives blood from the heart.

• The largest vein is the superior and inferior venae cavae, returns blood to the heart.

Exchange at the Capillaries

• At the end arterial end of a cardiovascular capillary, blood pressure is greater than osmotic pressure; therefore, water leaves the capillary.

• Lymph is tissue fluid contained within lymphatic vessels.

• The lymphatic system is a one-way system, and fluid is returned to blood by way of a cardiovascular vein.

Cardiovascular Disorders
• Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in the western countries.
Disorders of the Blood Vessels
Hypertension and atherosclerosis lead to stroke due to an artery blocked by a blood clot. Another possibility is an aneurysm, a burst blood vessel.
• High blood pressure
• Stroke, heart attack, and aneurysm
• Dissolving blood clots
• Treating clogged arteries
Disorders of the Heart
Heart failure is when the heart no longer pumps as usual. Heart failure is a growing problem because people who did die from heart attacks are now surviving and are left with damaged hearts.


Picture Reference:
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/dynamichuman2/content/gifs/0140.gif

http://kvhs.nbed.nb.ca/gallant/biology/blood_vessels.html

http://www.livescience.com/images/human_heart_graphic_03.jpg



Chapter six
Cardiovascular system: Blood
Blood: An overview

-The functions of blood fall into three categories
1. Transport
2. Defense
3. Regulation
• Blood is the primary transport medium
• Blood defends the body against invasion by pathogens in several ways.
• Blood has regulatory functions
-Composition of Blood
• Blood is a tissue and is classified as a liquid cell.
• The cells and cell fragments are called formed elements. The cell and cell fragments are suspended in a liquid are called plasma.
1. Formed Elements
• Red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
• Red blood cells are larger than white blood cells and there are million of red blood cells and only ten of thousands of white blood cells.
2. Plasma
• The composition of plasma is 91% water and 9% of various salt (ions) and organic molecules
• The most abundant organic molecules in blood are plasma protein.
• The function of plasma protein is to maintaining homeostasis.
• Three major type of plasma proteins:

• Albumins- most plasma osmotic pressure

• Globulins- three types: alpha, beta and gamma globulins. The alpha and beta both help transport substance in the blood like iron hormones and cholesterol. The gamma globulin is important in fighting disease.

• Fibrinogen- is a plasma protein that is active in formation of blood clots.

Red Blood Cells and Transport of Oxygen
• Red blood cells are highly specialized for oxygen transport.
• The red blood cells lack a nucleus but have hemoglobin (Hb) instead.
• Hemoglobin makes blood the color red.
• Have a biconcave shape because RBC (red blood cells) does not have a nucleus during maturation.
• Hemoglobin allows RBC to transport oxygen.
• Red blood cells are produced in bone marrow.
• Three disorders that are associated with RBCs are: anemic, sickle-cell disease and hemolytic diseases of the newborn.
White Blood Cells and Defense Against Disease
• Are large have a nucleus, does not have hemoglobin, and are translucent unless strained.
• Fights infections and is important to the immune system.
Type of white blood cells
1. Granular leukocytes- (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils)
2. Agranular leukocyte- (lymphocytes, monocytes)

• Granular Leukocytes- neutrophils account for 50%-70% of all white blood cells, are first to respond to an infection. Eosinophile respond in the event of a parasitic worm infection or an allergic reaction. Basophils respond to an asthma attacks.

• Agranular Leukocyte- lymphocyte account 25%-35% of white blood cells. Lymphocyte are of two types: B (plasma cell) and T (cytotoxic T cells) cells. Monocytes are the largest of white blooc cells and take up residence in the tissues.

Disorders
• SCID
• Leukemia
• EBV
All blood cells are produce within red bone marrow from stem cells and live up to 120 days and are destroyed in the liver and spleen.


Platelets and Blood Clotting
• Platelets result from fragmentation of megakaryocytic in the red bone marrow.
• Platelets function in blood clotting.

Blood Typing and Transfusions
• Blood transfusion is transfer of blood to another person’s blood.
ABO Blood Groups
• ABO blood typing determines the presence of absence of type A antigen and type B antigen on the surface of red blood cells.
• Type A Blood
• Type B Blood
• Type AB Blood
• Type O Blood
• Agglutination



Blood Typing and Transfusions
• Blood transfusion is transfer of blood to another person’s blood.
ABO Blood Groups
• ABO blood typing determines the presence of absence of type A antigen and type B antigen on the surface of red blood cells.
• Type A Blood
• Type B Blood
• Type AB Blood
• Type O Blood
• Agglutination





Rh Blood Groups
• Must be considered when transfusing blood.
• Very important during pregnancy because an Rh- mother may form antibodies to the Rh antigen while carrying or after the birth of an Rh+.
Homeostasis
• Homeostasis depends upon the cardiovascular system because it serves the needs of the cells.





Picture References:
http://z.about.com/f/p/440/graphics/images/en/19192.jpg

http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-88528/Blood-is-made-up-of-red-blood-cells-white-blood

http://www.lymphomation.org/images/leukocytes-normal.gif

http://media.allrefer.com/s4/l/p0014535-blood-clotting.gif

http://academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/herbrandsonc/bio201_McKinley/f21-7a_abo_blood_types_c.jpg

http://faculty.southwest.tn.edu/rburkett/urinar31.jpg


Chapter seven
Microbes, Pathogens, and You
• Microbes perform valuable services but they also cause diseases.

• The body has three line of defenses against invasion:

• Barrier to entry mean that the body has body cavities like skin and mucous membranes to prevent any harm against the body or having anything enter the body to cause harm.

• First responders mean that the white blood cells are the first to act to fight against the diseases.

• Specific defenses overcome an infection by killing the particular disease-causing agent that has entered the body.

Bacteria

• Are single-celled prokaryotes and do not have a nucleus.

• Have three common shapes:

• Bacillus has a rod shape.

• Coccus has a spherical shape.

• Spirillum is curved.

• Bacteria have cell wall that contains a unique amino-disaccharide.

• Are independent cells that are metabolically competent.

• Can reproduce rapidly under favorable conditions, doubling their numbers every 12 minutes.

• The growth of bacteria causes diseases.

Viruses

• Viruses bridges the gap between the living and the nonliving

• Are non-cellular- not composed of cells.

• Causes diseases (cold, flu, measles, chicken pox)

• Four times smaller than a bacterium.

• Can emerge and cause new diseases in the human body.

Prions

• Are protein

• There are three types of prion diseases: spontaneous, acquired and genetic.

• Has two parts: an outer capsid (protein unit) and inner core of nucleic acid.

• Can emerge and cause new diseases.

The Lymphatic System

• The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels and the lymphatic organs.

• The lymphatic system is closely associated with the cardiovascular system.

• Has four major functions that contribute to homeostasis:

• Lymphatic capillaries absorb excess tissue fluid and return it to the bloodstream.

• In the small intestines, lymphatic capillaries called lacteals absorb fats in the form of lipoproteins and transport them to the bloodstream.

• The lymphatic system is responsible for the production, maintenance, and distribution of lymphocytes.

• The lymphatic system helps defend the body against pathogens.

Lymphatic Vessels

• Form a one-way system first to the capillaries, then the vessels and so the ducts.

• The fluid in the lymphatic vessels is called lymph.

• The lymphatic system has two ducts:

• Thoracic duct-returns lymph collected from the body below the thorax, the left arm, and left side of the head and neck into the left subclavian vein.

• Right lymphatic duct-returns lymph from the right arm and right side of the head and neck into the right subclavian vein.

Lymphatic Organs

• Are divided into those that are primary: red bone marrow and the thymus gland; and the secondary: lymph nodes and spleen.

• The primary lymphatic organs

• Red bone marrow produces all types of blood cells.

• Thymus gland is located in the thoracic cavity between the trachea and the sternum, superior to the heart.

• The thymus has two functions:

• The thymus gland produces thymic hormones

• Immature T lymphocytes migrate from the bone marrow through the bloodstream to the thymus, where they mature

• Secondary lymphatic organs

• Organs are the spleen, the lymph nodes, and other organs like tonsils and the appendix.

• The spleen filters blood. The largest lymphatic organ.

• Lymph nodes, which occur along lymphatic vessels, filter lymph.

• Lymphatic nodules are concentration of lymphatic tissue not surrounded by a capsule

• The tonsils are patches of lymphatic tissue located in a ring about the pharynx.

• Peyer’s patches located in the intestinal wall

Nonspecific Defenses
Immunity, the ability to combat diseases and cancer, includes lines of defense. Two lines of defenses are: barriers to entry and inflammatory response.
Barriers to Entry
The body has built in barriers, both physical and chemical, that serve as the first line of defense against an infection by pathogens.

• Skin and mucous membranes

• The skin prevents infections from entering the body.

• Mucous membrane lines the respiratory, digestive, reproductive, and urinary tracts are also physical barriers to entry by pathogens.

• Chemical barriers

• The chemical barriers to infection include the secretions of sebaceous (oil) glands of the skin. It contains chemicals that weaken or kill certain bacteria on the skin.

• Perspiration, saliva, and tears contain an antibacterial enzyme called lysozyme.

• Resident bacteria

• Created by the normal flora, microbes that usually reside in the mouth, intestine, and other areas.

• Prevent potential pathogens from taking up residence.

Inflammatory Responses
The inflammatory response exemplifies the second line of defense against invasion by a pathogen.

• Is usually recognized by its four characteristic symptoms: redness, heat, swelling, and pain.

• Protective Proteins

• The complement system is composed of a number of blood plasma proteins.

• Certain other complement proteins join to form a membrane attack complex that produces holes in the surface of bacteria and some viruses.

• Interferons are proteins produced by virus-infected cells as a warning to no infected cells in the area.

Specific Defenses
When nonspecific defenses fall to stop an infection, a specific defense comes into play.
How Specific Defense Works

• Specific defenses respond to antigen, which are molecules the immune system recognizes as foreign to the body. Antigens are large molecules like proteins.

• Specific defenses primarily depend on the action of lymphocytes, which differentiate as either B cells or T cells.

• B Cells and antibody-medicated Immunity

• The receptor on a B cell is called a B cell receptor (BCR).

• Most of the cloned B cells become plasma cells.

• Characteristics of B cells:

• Antibody-medicated immunity against pathogens

• Produced and mature in bone marrow

• Directly recognize antigen and then undergo clonal selection

• Clonal expansion produces antibody-secreting plasma cells as well as memory B cells.

• Structure of an Antibody

• The basic unit which composes antibody molecules is a Y-shaped protein molecule with two arms.

• Classes of Antibodies

• There are five different classes of circulating antibodies.

• T cells and cell-medicated Immunity

• For a T cell to recognize an antigen, the antigen must be presented by an antigen-presenting macrophage, along with an HLA.

• The two main type of T cells are cytotoxic T cells and helper T cells.

• Cytotoxic T cells kill virus-infected cells or cancer cells on contact because they bear a nonself protein.

• Helper T cells produce cytokines and stimulate other immune cells.

Acquired Immunity
Immunity occurs naturally through infection or is brought about artificially by medical intervention. The two type of acquired immunity are active and passive.
Active Immunity- the individual alone produces antibodies against an antigen

• Immunization involves the use of vaccines, substances that contain an antigen to which the immune system responds.

• After a vaccine is given, it is possible to follow an immune response by determining the amount of antibody present in a sample of plasma; this is called the antibody titer.

Passive Immunity- the individual is given prepared antibodies via an injection.

• Passive immunity occurs when an individual is given prepared antibodies or immune cells to combat a disease.

• Is short-lived because the antibodies are administered to and not made by the individual.

Hypersensitivity Reactions
Allergies

• Allergies are hypersensitivities to substances, such as pollen, food, or animal hair, the ordinarily would do no harm to the body.

• The response to these antigens is called allergens.

• An immediate allergic response can occur within seconds of contact with the antigen.

Tissue Rejection

• Tissue rejection occurs when the immune system recognizes a tissue as foreign.

Disorders of the Immune System

• Autoimmune disease-cytotoxic T cells or antibodies mistakenly attack the body’s own cells as if they bear foreign antigens.

• Myasthenia gravis- antibodies attach to and interfere with the functioning of neuromuscular junctions, and muscular weakness results.

• Multiple sclerosis (MS)- t cells attack the myelin sheath of nerve fibers, and this causes various neuromuscular symptoms.

• Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)- has various symptoms prior to death due to kidney damage from the deposition of excessive antigen-antibody complexes.

• Rheumatoid arthritis- the joints are affected.

• When a person has an immune deficiency, the immune system is unable to protect the body against disease. AIDS is an example.

• Severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID)- both antibody and cell-mediated immunity are lacking or inadequate.

http://www.esa.int/images/General_Bacteria_L.jpg
http://www.worsleyschool.net/science/files/virus/page.html
http://www.stanford.edu/group/virus/prion/2005priya/molecularbio.html
http://www.longevity.ca/info_theory_of_cell.htm
http://diverge.hunter.cuny.edu/~weigang/Images/17-08_clonalselect_1.jpg